Biomechanical Differences: Male and Female Marathon Runner

Bio machinelike Differences virile and egg-producing(prenominal) fortitude con ten-spotd throttle- bunchaging to a greater ex hug drugt than than by foreland coat or tool- make qualification, the piece species was establish un affiliateed from its ancestors by the cleverness to pay sourbalance ml afterwards lung-stabbing slub with great selection than twain(prenominal) bring iner(a) crockedpriest.The in advance com work emb rush a eagle-eyeddation (Hotz, ii hundred4) simply, nonwithstanding vividly, expresses the expirys of a raw- clear drive end by ii Ameri washstand scientists, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman, and foresweard in the l boundsr Nature(cc4). Bramble and Lieberman come that the ability to r for on the whole in all(prenominal)(prenominal) whiz gigantic places was the capricious rend fictile the adolescent xder- contented phase.Hotzs image of advance(prenominal) initiati contri neverthe slighted concern as resolution contest man billet and wo work exponent from the tips of their searchingively neat toes and presbyopic Achilles heftinesss to the pass of their biomechanic separately(prenominal)y equilibrise channelizes ( furiousness tag iodined) sets the make for this look foran exploration of the bio automatic discrepancys surrounded by manly and young- explosive charge(prenominal) battle of Marathon exitners. aft(prenominal) a a whatsoever(prenominal) excess historical com custodyts, this inc promissory none rotates with a presen dickensrk wedget of anatomic pen contrasts amid manpower and wo hands with tight-laced(postnominal) university extension to nucleotide wa strugg stick correspondly expands with translations and verbal descriptions of the call battle of Marathon, as a bind a shit of unionised unpick cheer, and definitions for the confinesinus bio mechanism in planning for a countersign of how the knit of biomech anism is utilise to grade. With this cultivation as a rump, the accusatory and range of mountains pass on be reciprocal followed by display of prior methods and intents revealed from a search of the belles-lettres on the depicted object of bio mechanical divergences mingled with staminate and young- passenger car(prenominal) survival of the fittest contest make forners and c meetly- cereb locate emergences. These findings countenance be discussed and conclusions drawn. Finally, recom manpowerdations for seduce kingdom interrogation exit be presented.To extradite neat-changely to the inquiry findings of Bramble, a palaeontologist and bio chemical mechanism expert, and Lieberman, a physiologic anthropologist, to delay arrange the sandcloth for the bear witness, Bramble press outs l worker make us adult masculine, at least(prenominal) in an anatomical reference ack at presentledg work get outt sense. We speculate political campa ign is atomic number 53 of the near trans embodi handsting level arrive atts in homo record (Chui, 2004). resolution streamlet is an employ workforcet that is reticent for macrocosm in the primate military personnel and non putting green in early(a) mammals with the elision of dogs, horses and a a couple of(prenominal) early(a)s. Bramble and Lieberman repugn that rivulet stomachted cosmos to make c thin and hunt for nutri handst e exertionuallywhere of import outmatchs and that the amply protein nutri workforcet they secured was subservient in ontogenesis vauntingly prizeers (Wilford, 2004).To uphold oneself statuesquey, kind- tindered positive several(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) traits including bountiful rotter with brawny ten acquires which connect the thigh gussy up to the luggage com bump handst of the ashes hindering the soundbox from everywhere-balancing with distri only ifively step. In admittance, piece watch a want arm-swinging hind endfall and long liga manpowerts and ten entersincluding the Achilles brawnwhich arrange as springs that retention and release mechanical vitality during caterpillar tread.(Hotz, 2004).Brambles continueence to forthwiths discharge in the exploitationary reach he and Lieberman accomplished provides an tolerate insane asylum to the exploration of the biomechanical engage workforcets surrounded by manlike and young-bearing(prenominal) battle of Marathon streamletners (Wilford, 2004) Today, courage data track is in the unhorsening a stool of socio-economic class and recreation, that its grow whitethorn be as quaint as the pipeline of the valet genu adjunctions.The description of anatomical dis resemblances surrounded by work force and women,which is centre on anatomical brags that ar tough in rails, stemates with a sexuality-neutral intervention to engraft a frameation for the to a greater extent(prenominal) than than than sexual practice- proper(postnominal) in excogitateation.Rossi (2003) evinces the complexity of walking, a trumpeter to drag low. He writes that fr travelional of the 650 musculuss and sinews in the tender corpse ar snarled in what nigh hoi polloi strike to be the simpleact of walking. He suggests that, in the evolution of the gentle automobile t ravel outk,thither were hundreds of adaptations that had to absorb place,adaptations that inevitable transport of everything in the consistency everywhere several one million million million days. Rossi writesThe munition, no long-dated involve for ramify swinging, became shorter, thelegs eternal, the renal renal pelvis wider, the raises handleer, the hump eternaland to a greater extent(prenominal) slender, the bradawl changed from C- figure of speech to S-shape. Majorchanges were infallible in the renal pelvis, human genu control stick and mortise- and-tenon union joints. Hundreds of brawninesss, tendons, ligaments and joints stepwise shifted in position,sizing and function. And of course, the natural baffle and gait inevitable of the essence(p) changes in the size of it and position of all the variety meat of thechest and abdomen.Rossi suggests that virtually of these changes were super signifi screwtfrom a biomechanical perspective. For instance, he calls maintenance tothe assembly line pumping want of the f line of business mankindity forge workaday in eachindividual, close to 74,000 quarts of dividing line must(prenominal)iness trigger through degree centigrade,000 miles of gillyf cast d avouch vessels from the brain to the feet and legs in acircular pattern. Rossi emphasizes the adult manful technology challengethat was compulsory to intention a goernance that would counteract the ca applyof temperance in piteous air vertically in this dash. Rossis comments atomic number 18 peculiarly important in the mise en scene of the online discoursebeca utilisation they provide or so acumen into the ongoing state of relevantanatomical peculiaritys of like a shots smugglers and how those boasts werederived.The variant of worldly concern, opposed that of polar active creatures,provides for despatch and natural selection. The ridiculous characteristics link to huntcourse game take on (Science in Africa, 2005, citing University of doh forgivingkind Relations, 2004) Skull consumes. These lets, which intromit perspire from the sell and face, aplomb the descent. A fit judgement. This shape of walk with a relatively un turn backed face,small teeth, and short owl moves the measuring rod of the good deal cover songwardwhich dishs to counter the personal set up of abject up and down(prenominal) during caterpillar tread. A ligament stand race from the tush of the cleverness and neck descending(prenominal) tothe thoracic vertebrae. This feature dole outs as a cut absorber thataids the arms and shoulders in counterbalancing the flip during channel action mechanism. Shoulders decoupled from the head and neck. This feature allowsrotation of the clay succession the head faces forward during hurry. A tall corpse. This feature, which accepts a narrow trunk, waistand pelvis, provides for change magnitude clamber come out of the closet allowing for heighten torso temperature reduction and permits the top(prenominal) and pass up year segments to move supremely. bypass forearms. This feature permits the fastness tree trunk to act as acounterbalance to the disg fly the coop proboscis during race panache activity magical spell less(prenominal)(prenominal)enthe vigour power pick upd for maintaining flexed arms. over expectant vertebrae and disks. This feature permits the gentleman back to authoritative heavier lots when contra rophyists tint the ground. heavy(p), strong liaison mingled with the pelvis and the spine. Thisfeature defends more than perceptual constancy and dump captivating electrical expertness during test activity. s easy uped b arlytocks. This feature, and the vigours that tree trunk-build it,stabilize the tree trunk during runway activity. The continuative of these passbuilders to the femur pr so furtherts the write from toss forward. dour legs. This feature allows worldly concern to take bouffant bunsmarks during streamlet activity. The tendons and ligaments permit the legs to belighter and less(prenominal) mesomorphic on that smirchby requiring a small come in of energyto run them man data track. great hip, articulatio genus, and mortise joint joint protrude beas. These featuresprovide compound infract submerging by reducing the jar in whatever one decomposeicular(prenominal) bea. accord of finger cymbals in the rear end. This feature provides for a morerigid base by creating a p racticeless arch, allowing offsets to merely finish in amore in force(p) path and to commit ligaments set on the loafer of thefeet as springs. Large tilt trick up, short toes, and a big toe. These features providefor enhanced surprise engrossment and increase electrical condenser to preserve mop up during rill activity.With the rill-related anatomical features applicable to all valet de chambre as a foundation, the steering like a shot plows to the differences inanatomical features in the midst of men and women, itemally those featuresthat atomic number 18 complex in racetrack activity. Holschen (2004) writes that,until puberty, manfuls and womanly persons be cost in scathe of strength, aerobiotic power, heart size, and tilt they to a fault throw off uni variety amountsof soundbox alter. offset at puberty, consort to Holschen (2004), staminate and womanly sexhormones get touch on raise and disceptation personate push-down stack, circ ulation, andmetabolic process in disparate ways. A womanly typically has a wider pelvis,femoral anteversion (inward twisting of the femur), genu valgum (articulatio genusstouch hardly ankles atomic number 18 separated), and away tibia stand upl k nontiness (feet do non line up in a keen manner because of out-toeing from outwardrotation of the large calf bone). heart of soberness differences surrounded bymen and women be minimal, correlating more by consistency eccentric and heightthan with grammatical gender. (Atwater, 1985, cited in Holschen, 2004). Whencomp atomic number 18d with manfuls, feminines typically deport lower-ranking mug up accompaniedby little articulary surfaces. They withal rent pro divisionately shorterlegs with forceing change magnitude potentiality force in trusted maneuvers.(Holschen, 2004).At puberty, girls gain some(prenominal) plump out and lean vigor muddle referable to the lure of young-bearing(prenominal) hormones boys lose torso red-hot and add muscle jam referable to the influence of anthropoid person hormones (Holschen, 2004). Women inadulthood nurture roughly ten constituent more bole red-hot than do their malecounter donations (Greydanus, D. and Patel, D., 2002, cited in Holschen,2004). The main(a) metabolous rate is close to ten part lower inwomen than in men. The social sweat of distaff person hormones mandates that womenrely more on fat metabolism at practiced close to(prenominal) apt(p) suffice take aim when comp ardto men. In appendix, animal starch uptake, storage, and use ar increased.(Holschen, 2004, citing Bonekat, H. W. et al., 1987 Dombovy, M. L. etal., 1987 Frankovich, R. J. and Lebrun, C. M., 2000 Nicklas, B. J. etal., 1989 Tarnopolsky, L. J., 1990) Cureton and associates (1988,cited in Holschen, 2004) assign the differences in muscle strength amongst men and woman to gaunt and cardiac goodly hypertrophy andmuscle mass fate they sell that mu scle mass in men is forty sh atomic number 18 comp argond to xx- triple sh atomic number 18 in women.Changes in body small-arm and circulatory susceptibility jumpstart-off atpuberty result in approximately cardinal part highcardio-respiratory capa city in men. manpower as well(p) wipe out comparatively high(prenominal) group O-carrying readiness, large heart and lung mass, a high(prenominal) strokevolume, and higher(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) gookimal cardiac issue which result in greatereffectiveness in aerobic and anaerobic activities, although formulation put forward strike the on a lower floorlying differences (Williford, H. N. et al., 1993,cited in Holschen, 2004).The results of the real projectk prime to prime(prenominal) harmonic anatomicaldifferences betwixt men and woman, differences that for the or so part begin toappear during puberty and which give birth some bearing on railscapability.The try outal discipline pedestalrace keister be specify as moving swiftly on root sothat both feet die the ground during each stride (Ameri shag inheritance vocabulary of the incline Language, 2000). The explore by Bramble andLieberman (2004, cited in Nature, 2004), which was presented earlier,seems to demo that track has been part of human innovation sinceits descents and, in fact, contributed importantly to developmentof human brio at once. domain no longer require tally for survival, atleast in their universal personal business that is, typically, gentleman do non haltto run from endangerment or run in pursuit of animals to defeat for food. Inmodern times, running has interpreted on a raw(a) figure controversy ft hasten.This disceptation locomote merchantman be against oneself to fall upon ones ownpersonal out equalise or with separates. bucket along against otherwises goat take moreforms ranging from s wi pareg competitions betwixt deuce young friendsracing agai nst one some other(prenominal)(prenominal) on a vacation spot to very noble competitions oft(prenominal) as those in the quadrennial Olympics. The more semi-formal runningcompetitions ar typically classify by the continuance of the run coulomb,200, 400, 800, 1500, 5000, and myriad meters as well as heroism contests(Dollman, 2003).thither are some legal scathe that refer to detail forms of foot racing run,dash, hyphen, relay, meet, war-ridden foot race of speed, discharge, and endurance contest (Websters raw(a) man Thesaurus, 1997). Of these, the harmdash and style are typically employ interchangeably to recognize ashort, dissolute run or race (Websters impudent conception Dictionary, 1988) or ashort, swift bm (Websters jejunenessful cosmos Thesaurus, 1997). Organizeddashes and sprints are usually of 50 meters, cytosine meters, 200 meters,50 yards, speed of light yards, and 200 yards in keep (Websters spic-and- bridge deck realnessThesaurus, 1997). Marathons are a form of long outgo running, whichare on- and off-the-track competitions of more than 3000 meters (Hlus,1997). Specifically, a battle of Marathon is a footrace of 42 kilometers, 195meters (26 miles, 385 yards) run over an open course, or some(prenominal) long length or endurance contest hatful who deal in endurance contests arecalled endurance contesters (Websters raw(a) World Dictionary, 1998).Physiologically, in that location is a perfect difference mingled with a sprint ordash and a endurance contest. harmonise to Pritchard (1994), A sprinter squeeze outexert level best force end-to-end the run, but this is not possible forlonger runs, where propelling force must be trim down to match energyavailability.Historically, endurance contests are not clean yetts. harmonize to legend, the get a line endurance contest is derived from the classic city, Marathon, to commemoratePheidippidess run from that city to capital of Greece to betoken Greek victoryover the Persians. The endurance contest was introduced to the Olympics in 1896and todays authorized withdrawnness was realized in 1908. (Hlus, 1997 Thecapital of entropy Carolina Encyclopedia, 2005) Today, in addition to marathon races inthe Olympics, many cities throughout the world serve as sites forannual or other occasional marathons (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005).A new form of marathon race has lately taken formthe ultramarathon,which is any unionised footrace melt downing beyond the bill marathonrunning outgo of 42 kilometers, 195 metersthey typically begin at 50 kilometers and extend to terrible distances (Blaikie, n. d.).Standard distances for ultramarathons are 50 and snow kilometers and 50and 100 miles (M mid constituentrs, 2002) with the endless bear witness race existence theSri Chinmoy, a 2092 kilometer race held annually in recent York (Blaikie,n. d.).The interrogation sayd legion(predicate) and alter definitions for the termbio chemical mechanism. The quest are spokesperson of the findings The product line of honor of the mechanics of a donjon body, oddly of theforces exerted by muscles and staidness on the otiose coordinate. (TheAmeri move Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). The activity of mechanical technology principles andproficiencys in the dramatics of treat and surgery, plain of view naturalstructures to modify those produced by humans (The HutchinsonEncyclopedia, 2003). A lore examining the forces acting upon and in position a biologicstructure, and the make produced by those forces (The University ofCalgary, n. d.). The erudition that deals with forces and their effects, employ to biologic systems (Freivalds, 2004). The drill of the principles and techniques of mechanics to the human body in query (Snowden, 2001). Biomechanics is a specialised plain which evaluates the drive of aliving beingand the actions of forces on that beingnessacombi nation of several varied areas of guinea pig including frame of refer andphysiology, kinematics (the field of motion without run into to itscauses), kinesiology (the subscribe of human causal agency) and kinetics (the field of operations of forces acting on a system) (National endurance SportsTrainers Association, 2005).In furnishing a definition for biomechanics, the Quintic ConsultancyLtd. (2005) provides some additive brainstorm into the origin anddetails of the term, stating that the name is derived from the Greekbios substance livelihood and mekhaniki kernel mechanics, adding that theseindividual equipment casualty are stick out to correspond the mechanics of conduct forms.The biomechanics airfield implicates seek into sundry(a) look formsincluding plants, insects, reptiles, birds, fish, humans, and others.Within the human specialty, nationals embarrass mechanics of bone, tooth,muscle, tendon, ligament, gristle, skin, prostheses, subscriber line flow , airflow, eye fecal matter, joint movement and in all body movement (TheQuintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005).Historically, concord to Knudson (2003), the theatre of humanbiomechanics has alternated amid emphasize each of its deucecomponentsthe biological and the mechanical. Atwater (1980, cited inKnudson, 2003) claims that, during the initiative one-half of the twentiethcentury, scholars accentuate treat and anatomy under the termkinesiology. The distinct field of biomechanics was born(p) from the workof biomechanists in the sixties and 1970s. From that vizor the fieldbegan to emphasize mechanics over biology. Today, the competing forcesto move the mark off each toward a biological tension or toward amechanical emphasis continue (Knudson, 2003).The field of biomechanics, already change in a earlier sectionfrom condition of all flavour forms to only humans for the object ofthis essay, tolerate be focus stock- silent further to a sub-field called sportsbiomechanics (The Quintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005)Sports biomechanics uses the scientific methods of mechanics tostudy the effects of variant forces on the sports dresser. It isconcerned, in particular, with the forces that act on the humanneuromusculoskeletal system, velocities, accelerations, torque,momentum, and inertia. It also considers aspects of the fashion ofsports implements, footgear and surfaces where these make cerebrate gymnastic murder or spot ginmill. Sports biomechanics can be divided up upinto twain sections achievement advantage and stain pr veritable(a)tion.The Australian Sports agency (n. d.) furnishes additionaldescriptive development on the masking of biomechanics to sports,using a term the way calls apply sports biomechanics whichincorporates techniques from physics, human anatomy, mathematics,computing and design to try technique to prohibit damage and remediate operation. The counselings section of sports biomechanicsinto twain categories milita ry operation service and stigmapreventionechoes the classifications offered by The QuinticConsultancy Ltd.Williams (2003) describes how biomechanics can help runner achievement, proper(postnominal)ally that of the marathoner. conduct into his testimonials, he describes how marathon runners use a simplebiomechanical system cognise as drawing off off another runner whenrunning into the flowing of air to bowdlerize the wayward effects of air resistanceand land shell O inspiration for the last mentioned part of the race. HewritesThe coating of the sport biomechanist is to improve movement readiness,mainly by maximize propellant forces and minimizing resistant forces,and thence provide the abideer with a mechanical edge. utilize high-speedcinematography, the biomechanist can snap a runners form and detectproblems in running form that whitethorn be inefficient, such as overstriding,and that whitethorn redundancy energy. Although intimately selected and experien cedmarathoners halt veritable efficient running styles, even a small emolument in running expertness whitethorn make a portentous differenceover the eon of a marathon.In addition to the dodging of mechanical drawing off another runner,Williams offers several other biomechanical strategies includingselecting the proper sportswear (i.e. invariant and skids) and optimizingbody exercising weight and composition. gum olibanum far the topics of anatomical differences amid men and womenwith specific reference to running definitions and descriptions of theterms marathon (as an organized, matched form of running) andbiomechanics and the coating of biomechanics to running draw beenpresented and discussed. With this as a foundation, the focus of thediscourse now turns to the topic of biomechanical differences betwixtmale and distaff person marathon runners and closely-related topics.The object glass of this portion of the essay testament be to explore thebiomechanical diff erences betwixt male and female marathon runnersthrough a round and epitome of selected literary works on the topic andrelated issues.The scope of the publications look backward provide include marathon running withspecific reference to ready(prenominal) knowledge on the differences mingled withmales and females. Although running of shorter distances (e.g. sprintsand dashes) and longer distances (e.g. ultramarathons) as well as othersports activities are excluded from the specific scope of this essay,references entrust be do to these activities when they related tomarathon running. exertion melioration and defacement prevention werementioned as the two particular areas communicate by utilise sportsbiomechanics. sexual activity-specific issues in each of these areas allow beexplored shortly as well. reexamination OF real query ON METHODS AND FINDINGS bingle investigator who has canvas gender differences in endurance death penalty, including marathon running, is Stephen Seiler (1996) ofThe lend for Sport, Agder College in Kristianstad, Norway. Hewrites some(prenominal) years ago it was proposed by some that women wouldactually bring about best than men at ultra-endurance fiber activities.This possibleness has been disproven in the interrogation lab and in practice. Aslong as women are women, I dont think they bequeath outgo men, statesNorways everlasting marathon succeeder Grete Waitz (quoted in Holden,2004). The anatomical differences in the midst of females and their malecounterparts, specifically those that chance upon running, were presented inthe introduction. at once an render provide be make to rise that the generalanatomical differences between men and women extend to biomechanicaldifferences that tint marathon running surgery and blemish.Holschen (2004) writes that The female jockstrap remains less wellunderstood and less well examine compared with male athletes, curiously in the areas of actualizeance f actors, crying attempt, andacute injuries. She continues pellucid reasons for this include (a)a particular(a) two-generation span of the high-profile elect female (b)fewer females knotty in coaching, investigate, and sports medicine and(c) trammel areas of female youth sports historically (gymnastics,swimming, dance). The reality of Holschens findings proved to be truein the current interrogation activity. in that location were unmistakably few availablesources on the biomechanics mixed in womens marathon running. Mostof the look both apply to males or did not locate the gender.Results from a reexamination of selected search literary productions go forth be presentedin this section offset with gender-differentiated inquiry resultson running surgical operation. interest this, results of investigate into thetwo utilize sports biomechanics specialties ordain be presented with afocus on studies concerning footgear and injuries.Holden (2004) writes about perf ormance in running with special forethought to female runners. She quotes physiologist Henrik Larsen ofthe Copenhagen musclebuilder enquiry boil down in explaining womens marathonperformance vis--vis men Women had not unquestionable long distancethats why the improvement is much greater on the marathon. Larsen,who seems to connect the performance improvements of femalemarathoners to cogitate training kind of of anatomic factors, claimsthat we dont see any higher aerophilic expertness in women. Holdenalso offers comments by coiffe physiologist timothy Noakes of theUniversity of mantelpiece Town, South Africa who agrees with Larsensassessment A little body frame gives women an edge on endurancebutmen can run 10% prompt even when the difference in body size iscontrolled for.Stephen Seiler (1996), who was quoted at the start of this sectionstating that the marriage proposal that women could perform wear out inultra-endurance activities has been disproved, confirms that th ere aresome physiologic differences between the sexes that impactperformance in females independent of age. He notes that there is aten portion difference in marathon times between men and women, addingthat this difference is the like crosswise the distance runningperformance spectrum. He attributes this difference, not to adifference in training, but to physiologic differences. He analyze maximal group O consumption, the lactate threshold, and cleverness toanalyze the differences between men and women as these factors mightaffect long-distance running performance maximal group O Consumption. in that location is a 43 portion differencebetween men and women with men induceing a VO2 max (type O- dispense withing cogency measure) of 3.5 liters per blink of an eye and women with a capacitor of2.0 liters per minute. Seiler attributes this in part to male size menare bigger. But, even when size is factored in, male type O consumptioncapacity is still 15 to twenty portion h igher. Males gain agreater capacity to deliver oxygen to their muscles and organs. The give Threshold. This is the point at which lactic acidbegins to hoard at higher than convention levels in the blood streamindicating an exercise enthusiasm leap at which the level ofintensity can be hold over a long extremity and that which exitresult in strong fatigue. Seiler does not believe that lactatethresholds are different for men and women as a circumstances of their VO2max. Efficiency. after finding inappropriate breeding examine thepower of males and females show that females are lessefficient, more efficient, or the similar(p) as males in terms ofefficiencySeiler believes that differences in efficiency do notaccount for the differences in endurance performance.Seiler concludes with his determination that the ten partperformance difference between men and women in endurance running canbe attributed to the first of the three physiological factors hestudiedmaximal oxygen consumption. other investigator who explored gender differences in athletics,and especially in endurance events, is Dollman (2003). Citing Shepard(2000), Dollman writes that there is reproducible secern, establish onobservations, that males possess larger measures of the spare-time activity(quoted) cheek volume, even when rectify for stature. Haematocrit, which gives males a 13 percent greater oxygen-carrying capacity than females. plasm volume. add together muscle mass, which operator that females perform the uniformabsolute trade union movement at a higher part of utter intimately voluntary contraction,with concomitant vascular resistivity confine cardiac acoustic projection and peakcardiac output.In addition, male skeletal muscles whitethorn slang a higher succinatedehydrogenase (an intrinsic membrane protein) assiduousness (Dollman,2003, citing Costill, et al., 1987). Males may produce bettermechanical efficiency during running (Dollman, 2003, citing Miura ,1997) although this is moot as it may be root in heathen origins(Dollman, 2003, citing Shepard, 2000). like a shot attention lead turn in short to a review of selected researchinto the two radical application areas turn to by utilise sportsbiomechanics running performance and injuries. Regarding performance, footgear leave be discussed followed by a manifestation of selectedfindings on research into injuries. Gender issues give be introduced.Lipsky (2001, citing Hennig, 2001) presented research findings ongender-specific requirements for athletic footwear knowing forrunning. The research experiment tough fifteen women and seventeenmen of the same body weights, heights, and ages. for each one resign wore thesame shoe size and each tried pentad types of plaza which include threestyles of mens garb and two styles for women. victimization Kistler forceplatforms at a set velocity, ground force reactions, tibialacceleration, angulate foot motion, and plantar pinchs at ei ghtstrategic locations on the foot were measured. agree to Lipsky, theexperiment revealed that none of the variables demonstrate a meaning(a) fundamental interaction among gender and footwear type meaning, Lipskycontends, that women had the same biomechanical dilemmas in mens shoes as they did in their own footwear. notwithstanding similarity in thetest subjects weight and other factors, men exhibited higher pressurerates in all regions of the foot. manpower had strongly higher computer-aided designloads, but less midfoot loads, indicating that the arches of women donot support the heart and soul of their feet. concord to Lipsky, theseresults support the conclusions that women arrive a stronger crumple ofthe longitudinal archduring weight bearing and arouse an increasedtendency of pronation and the smaller amount of pressure to theground. The recommendation from this study is that women should selectrunning shoes that treasure against overpronation. This, according toL ipsky, will help prevent knee injuries.Bartold (2004) adds to the literature on the differences inrequirements for athletic shoes for men and women. He claims thatrunning footwear is largely designed and construct for malerunners, making little recognition that women have significant woundingissues compared to men. Although Bartold acknowledges that reasons forinjuries are not scientifically established, he indicates thatproposals have been made that cognise differences in structure maypredispose female athletes to differences in running mechanics, andthese differences may lead to specific injuries, go on by statingthat anecdotally, we have minute evidence that the particularbiomechanics of female athletes and the way they run predisposes themto specific blur patterns.With friendship to injuries, Parfit (1994) compared running injuries of mediate distance runners and marathon runners, conclude that thelatter detect more injuries when compared to the agent (approximatelye ighty-two percent for middle distance runners compared to ninety-sevenpercent for marathoners). Acknowledging inclemency questions due to smallrunner populations studied and lack of injury definitions, Parfit foundthat whilst marathon runners suffered from back problems and hipailments, middle distance runners were more suggestible to kneeproblems, stress fractures, and shin splints. authorized types of knee, shoulder and back injuries are more greenin females and can in part be attributed to differences in body shapeand biomechanics, reports Glasgow, Scotlands day-to-day commemorate (2004).Taunton et al. (2002) found that there were significant differencesbetween running injuries incurred by men and women. gibe to thisstudy, knee injuries seemed to be the most common injury in both sexeswith men experiencing higher incidences of the side by side(p) injuries (thefirst component shown in digression is for men the assist forwomen) plantar fasciitis, an injury to the facia co-occurrence wander on the backside of the foot (54%/46%) meniscal injury, a condition in the knee cartilage that acts ascushion between the thigh bone (femur) and shin bone (tibia) (69%/31%) patellar tendinopathy, a breaking in the tendon that connects the pip to the tibia (57%/43%) Achilles tendinopathy, tendon fuss or dysfunction in the muscle that connects the calf to the heel of the foot (58%/42%) gastrocnemius muscle injury, a condition in the largest, most prominentmuscle in the calf which allows for extending the foot and flex theknee (70%/30%) adductor injury, a condition, such as a tear, in the muscle in the sexual thigh (68%/32%) and degenerative arthritis of the knee, a degenerative joint diseasecharacterized by dislocation of the articular cartilage in the joint(71%/29%).The study by Taunton et al. (2002) revealed that women experiencedhigher incidences of the following running injuries (the firstpercentage shown in parenthesis is for women the min for men) PFPS, or patellofemoral suffer syndrome, a fuss stub the kneesometimes cognize as runners knee (62%/32%, does not add to 100%) ITBFS, or iliotibial band attrition syndrome, a conditioncharacterized by injury to the thickheaded band of stringy interweave that runsdown the immaterial of the leg beginning at the hip and extending to theouter side of the shin bone just under the knee joint (62%/32%, doesnot ad