Minority Group and Multiculturalism Essay Example for Free

Minority Group and Multiculturalism EssayThis research was commissioned by the transatlantic Council on Migration, an initiative of the Migration indemnity Institute (MPI), for its seventh plenary meeting, held November 2011 in Berlin. The meetings theme was National Identity, Immigration, and Social Cohesion (Re)building Community in an Ever-Globalizing World and this paper was one of the reports that informed the Councils discussions. The Council, an MPI initiative undertaken in cooperation with its constitution partner the Bertelsmann Stiftung, is a unique deliberative body that examinesvital policy issues and informs migration policymaking processes in North America and Europe. The Councils work is generously supported by the following foundations and political sympathiess Carnegie Corporation of New York, Open Society Foundations, Bertelsmann Stiftung, the Barrow Cadbury depone (UK Policy Partner), the Luso-Ameri send packing Development Foundation, the Calouste Gulbenk ian Foundation, and the governments of Germany, the Netherlands, Nor management, and Sweden. For more on the Transatlantic Council on Migration, please visit www. migrationpolicy. org/transatlantic. 2012 Migration Policy Institute.All Rights Reserved. No part of this usualation may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storage and retrieval system, without authorization from the Migration Policy Institute. A full-text PDF of this document is available for free download from www. migrationpolicy. org. Permission for reproducing excerpts from this report should be directed to Permissions Department, Migration Policy Institute, 1400 16th Street, NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036, or by contacting emailprotectedorg. Suggested citation Kymlicka, Will. 2012. Multiculturalism Success, Failure, and the Future. Washington, DC Migration Policy Institute. Table of Contents Executive Summary. 1 I. Introducti on.. 2 The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism.3 . II. What Is Multiculturalism?.. 4 A. Misleading Model. 4 . B. Multiculturalism in Context 5 . C. The Evolution of Multiculturalism Policies.. 7 III.Multiculturalism in Practice. 10 A. The Canadian Success Story 10 B. The European Experience. 13 . IV. The Retreat from Multiculturalism.. 14 A. Rhetoric versus Reality ..14 B. Proliferation of Civic Integration Policies. 15 . V. ConclusionThe Future of Multicultural Citizenship. 21 Appendices 26 Works Cited28 About the Author.. 32 MIGRATION constitution INSTITUTE Executive Summary Ideas about the legal and policy-making accommodation of heathen renewing commonly termed multiculturalism emerged in the West as a vehicle for replacing centenarianer forms of heathen and racial hierarchy with new traffic of democratic citizenship. Despite substantial evidence that these policies are making fortify toward that goal, a chorus of semipolitical leaders has declared them a failure and he ralded the death of multiculturalism.This popular master news report is problematic because it mischaracterizes the nature of the experiments in multiculturalism that keep back been undertaken, exaggerates the extent to which they nurture been abandoned, and misidentifies not only the genuine difficulties and limitations they have encountered solely the extracts for addressing these problems. Talk about the seclude from multiculturalism has obscured the fact that a form of multicultural integration remains a live option for occidental democracies. This report challenges four powerful myths about multiculturalism. First, it disputes the caricature of multiculturalism as the uncritical celebration of diversity at the expense of addressing grave societal problems such(prenominal) as unemployment and social isolation. Instead it offers an account of multiculturalism as the pursuit of new relations of democratic citizenship, stimulate and constrained by human-rights estimationls . Second, it contests the idea that multiculturalism has been in wholesale retreat, and offers instead evidence that multiculturalism policies (MCPs) have persisted, and have even grown stronger, over the outgoing ten years. Third, it challenges the idea that multiculturalism has failed, and offers instead evidence that MCPs have had positive effects. Fourth, it disputes the idea that the spread of civic integration policies has displaced multiculturalism or rendered it obsolete. The report instead offers evidence that MCPs are fully coherent with certain forms of civic integration policies, and that indeed the combination of multiculturalism with an enabling form of civic integration is both normatively desirable and empirically effective in at least some cases. To help address these issues, this paper draws upon the Multiculturalism Policy Index.This index 1) identifies eight concrete policy areas where liberal-democratic deposits faced with a choice decided to break off m ore multicultural forms of citizenship in relation to immigrant assemblages and 2) measures the extent to which countries have espoused some or all of these policies over time. While there have been some high-profile cases of retreat from MCPs, such as the Netherlands, the general pattern from 1980 to 2010 has been one of modest strengthening. Ironically, some countries that have been vociferous about multiculturalisms failure (e. g. , Germany) have not really practiced an active multicultural strategy.Talk about the retreat from multiculturalism has obscured the fact that a form of multicultural integration remains a live option for Western democracies. However, not all attempts to adopt new manakins of multicultural citizenship have taken root or succeeded in achieving their intended effects. There are several(prenominal) factors that can either facilitate or impede the successful implementation of multiculturalism Multiculturalism Success, Failure, and the Future 1 MIGRATION P OLICY INSTITUTE Desecuritization of ethnic relations. Multiculturalism works best if relations between thestate and minorities are fall uponn as an issue of social policy, not as an issue of state security. If the state perceives immigrants to be a security little terror (such as Arabs and Muslims after 9/11), support for multiculturalism go outside drop and the space for minorities to even voice multicultural claims will diminish. Human rights. Support for multiculturalism rests on the effrontery that there is a shared commitment to human rights across ethnic and religious lines. If states perceive certain groups as unable or unwilling to abide by human-rights norms, they are unlikely to accord them multicultural rights or resources.Much of the shrink against multiculturalism is fundamentally driven by anxieties about Muslims, in particular, and their perceived unwillingness to extort liberal-democratic norms. Border control. Multiculturalism is more controversial when ci tizens fear they lack control over their borders for instance when countries are faced with large numbers (or unexpected surges) of unauthorized immigrants or asylum seekers than when citizens feel the borders are secure. Diversity of immigrant groups. Multiculturalism works best when it is genuinelymulticultural that is, when immigrants come from many source countries rather than coming overwhelmingly from average one (which is more likely to lead to polarized relations with the majority). Economic contributions. Support for multiculturalism depends on the perception that immigrants are holding up their end of the bargain and making a good-faith effort to contribute to society particularly economically. When these facilitating conditions are present, multiculturalism can be seen as a low-risk option, and indeed seems to have worked well in such cases.Multiculturalism tends to lose support in high-risk situations where immigrants are seen as predominantly illegal, as potentia l carriers of narrow-minded practices or movements, or as sack up burdens on the welfare state. However, one could argue that rejecting immigrant multiculturalism under these circumstances is in fact the higher-risk move. It is precisely when immigrants are perceived as illegitimate, illiberal, and burdensome that multiculturalism may be about needed. I. Introduction Ideas about the legal and political accommodation of ethnic diversity have been in a state of flux around the macrocosm for the past 40 years.One hears much about the trick up and fall of multiculturalism. Indeed, this has become a kind of master narrative, widely invoked by scholars, journalists, and policymakers alike to explain the disclosement of contemporary debates about diversity. Although people disagree about what comes after multiculturalism, there is a surprising consensus that we are in a post-multicultural era. This report contends that this master narrative obscures as much as it reveals, and that we need an alternative framework for thinking about the choices we face.Multiculturalisms successes and failures, as well as its level of public acceptance, have depended on the nature of the issues at stake and the countries involved, and we need to understand these variations if we are to identify a more sustainable model for accommodating diversity. This paper will argue that the master narrative 1) mischaracterizes the nature of the experiments in multiculturalism that have been undertaken, 2) exaggerates the extent to which they have been abandoned, and 3) misidentifies the genuine difficulties and limitations they have encountered and the options for addressing these problems.2 Multiculturalism Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE to begin with we can decide whether to celebrate or lament the fall of multiculturalism, we need send-off to make sure we know what multiculturalism has meant both in theory and in practice, where it has succeeded or failed t o meet its objectives, and under what conditions it is likely to thrive in the future. The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism The master narrative of the advancement and fall of multiculturalism helpfully captures important features of our up-to-the-minute debates.Yet in some respects it is misleading, and may obscure the real challenges and opportunities we face. In its simplest form, the master narrative goes like this1 Since the mid-1990s we have seen a backlash and retreat from multiculturalism. From the 1970s to mid-1990s, there was a clear trend across Western democracies toward the increased recognition and accommodation of diversity through a double of multiculturalism policies (MCPs) and minority rights.These policies were endorsed both at the domestic level in some states and by inter bailiwick organizations, and involved a rejection of earlier ideas of unitary and homogeneous nationhood. Since the mid-1990s, however, we have seen a backlash and retreat from multicultur alism, and a reassertion of ideas of nation building, common values and identity, and unitary citizenship even a call for the re crease of assimilation. This retreat is partly driven by fears among the majority group that the accommodation of diversity has gone too far and is threatening their way of life.This fear often expresses itself in the rise of nativist and populist right-wing political movements, such as the Danish Peoples Party, defending old ideas of Denmark for the Danish. But the retreat also reflects a belief among the center-left that multiculturalism has failed to help the intended beneficiaries namely, minorities themselves because it has failed to address the underlying sources of their social, economic, and political exclusion and may have unintentionally contributed to their social isolation.As a result, even the center-left political movements that initially championed multiculturalism, such as the social democratic parties in Europe, have backed 1 For inf luential academic statements of this rise and fall narrative, claiming that it applies across the Western democracies, see Rogers Brubaker, The Return of Assimilation? Ethnic and Racial Studies 24, no. 4 (2001) 53148 and Christian Joppke, The Retreat of Multiculturalism in the Liberal State Theory and Policy, British Journal of Sociology 55, no. 2 (2004) 23757.There are also many accounts of the decline, retreat, or crisis of multiculturalism in particular countries. For the Netherlands, see Han Entzinger, The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism in the Netherlands, in Toward Assimilation and Citizenship Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States, eds. Christian Joppke and Ewa Morawska (London Palgrave, 2003) and Ruud Koopmans, Trade-Offs between Equality and Difference The Crisis of Dutch Multiculturalism in Cross-National Perspective (Brief, Danish Institute for International Studies, Copenhagen, December 2006).For Britain, see Randall Hansen, Diversity, Integration and the Turn from Multi culturalism in the linked Kingdom, in Belonging? Diversity, scholarship and Shared Citizenship in Canada, eds. Keith G. Banting, Thomas J. Courchene, and F. Leslie Seidle (Montreal Institute for Research on Public Policy, 2007) Les Back, Michael Keith, Azra Khan, Kalbir Shukra, and prat Solomos, New Labours White Heart Politics, Multiculturalism and the Return of Assimilation, Political Quarterly 73, No. 4 (2002) 44554 Steven Vertovec, Towards post-multiculturalism?Changing communities, conditions and contexts of diversity, International Social lore Journal 61 (2010) 8395. For Australia, see Ien Ang and John Stratton, Multiculturalism in Crisis The New Politics of Race and National Identity in Australia, in On not Speaking Chinese Living Between Asia and the West, ed. I. Ang (London Routledge, 2001). For Canada, see Lloyd Wong, Joseph Garcea, and Anna Kirova, An Analysis of the Anti- and Post-Multiculturalism Discourses The Fragmentation Position (Alberta Prairie Centre for Exce llence in Research on Immigration and Integration, 2005), http//pmc.metropolis. net/Virtual%20Library/FinalReports/Post-multi%20FINAL%20REPORT%20for%20PCERII%20_2_. pdf. For a good overview of the backlash discourse in various countries, see Steven Vertovec and Susan Wessendorf, eds. , The Multiculturalism Backlash European Discourses, Policies and Practices (London Routledge, 2010). Multiculturalism Success, Failure, and the Future 3 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE away from it and shifted to a discourse that emphasizes civic integration, social cohesion, common values, and shared citizenship.2 The social-democratic discourse of civic integration differs from the radical-right discourse in emphasizing the need to develop a more inclusive national identity and to fight racism and discrimination, but it nonetheless distances itself from the rhetoric and policies of multiculturalism. The term postmulticulturalism has often been invoked to signal this new approach, which seeks to overtake the limits of a naive or misguided multiculturalism while avoiding the oppressive reassertion of homogenizing nationalist ideologies.3 II. What Is Multiculturalism? A. Misleading Model In much of the post-multiculturalist literature, multiculturalism is characterized as a feel-good celebration of ethnocultural diversity, encouraging citizens to acknowledge and embrace the panoply of customs, traditions, music, and cuisine that exist in a multiethnic society. Yasmin Alibhai-Brown calls this the 3S model of multiculturalism in Britain saris, samosas, and steeldrums. 4Multiculturalism takes these familiar cultural markers of ethnic groups clothing, cuisine, and music and treats them as authentic practices to be preserved by their members and safely consumed by others. Under the banner of multiculturalism they are taught in school, performed in festivals, displayed in media and museums, and so on. This celebratory model of multiculturalism has been the focus of many critiques, includ ing the following It ignores issues of economic and political inequality.Even if all Britons come to enjoy Jamaican steeldrum music or Indian samosas, this would do nothing to address the real problems facing Caribbean and South Asian communities in Britain problems of unemployment, poor educational outcomes, residential segregation, poor English speech skills, and political marginalization. These economic and political issues cannot be solved simply by celebrating cultural differences. Even with respect to the (legitimate) goal of promoting greater understanding of culturaldifferences, the focus on celebrating authentic cultural practices that are unique to each group is potentially dangerous. First, not all customs that may be traditionally practiced inwardly a particular group are worthy of being celebrated, or even of being legally tolerated, such as forced marriage. To avoid aspiration up controversy, theres a tendency to choose as the focus of multicultural celebrations safely inoffensive practices such as cuisine or music that can be enjoyably consumed by members of the large society. But this runs the opposite risk 2For an overview of the attitudes of European social democratic parties to these issues, see Rene Cuperus, Karl Duffek, and Johannes Kandel, eds. , The quarrel of Diversity European Social Democracy Facing Migration, Integration and Multiculturalism (Innsbruck Studien Verlag, 2003). For references to post-multiculturalism by progressive intellectuals, who branch it from the radical rights antimulticulturalism, see, regarding the United Kingdom, Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, After Multiculturalism (London unlike Policy Centre, 2000), and Beyond Multiculturalism, Canadian Diversity/Diversite Canadienne 3, no.2 (2004) 514 regarding Australia, James Jupp, From White Australia to Woomera The Story of Australian Immigration, 2nd edition (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2007) and regarding the United States, Desmond King, The Liberty of Strangers Making the American Nation (Oxford Oxford University Press, 2004), and David A. Hollinger, Post-ethnic America Beyond Multiculturalism, revised edition (New York Basic Books, 2006).Alibhai-Brown, After Multiculturalism. 3 4 4 Multiculturalism Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE of the trivialization or Disneyfication of cultural differences,5 ignoring the real challenges that differences in cultural and religious values can raise. Third, the 3S model of multiculturalism can encourage a conception of groups as hermetically sealed and static, each reproducing its own distinct practices.Multiculturalism may be intended to encourage people to share their customs, but the surmise that each group has its own classifiable customs ignores processes of cultural adaptation, mixing, and melange, as well as emerging cultural commonalities, thereby potentially reinforcing perceptions of minorities as eternally other. This in turn can lead to the strengthening of prejudice and stereotyping, and more generally to the polarization of ethnic relations. Fourth, this model can end up reinforcing power inequalities and cultural restrictions deep downminority groups. In deciding which traditions are authentic, and how to interpret and display them, the state generally consults the traditional elites within the group typically older males while ignoring the way these traditional practices (and traditional elites) are often challenged by internal reformers, who have different views about how, say, a good Muslim should act. It can therefore remit people in cultural scripts that they are not allowed to question or dispute.According to post-multiculturalists, the growing recognition of these flaws underlies the retreat from multiculturalism and signals the search for new models of citizenship that emphasize 1) political participation and economic opportunities over the symbolic politics of cultural recognition, 2) human rights and individual fr eedom over respect for cultural traditions, 3) the building of inclusive national identities over the recognition of ancestral cultural identities, and 4) cultural change and cultural mixing over the reification of static cultural differences.This narrative about the rise and fall of 3S multiculturalism will no doubt be familiar to many readers. In my view, however, it is inaccurate. Not only is it a caricature of the reality of multiculturalism as it has true over the past 40 years in the Western democracies, but it is a distraction from the real issues that we need to face.The 3S model captures something important about raw(a) human tendencies to simplify ethnic differences, and about the logic of global capitalism to sell cosmopolitan cultural products, but it does not capture the nature of post-1960s government MCPs, which have had more complex historical sources and political goals. B. Multiculturalism in Context It is important to put multiculturalism in its historical conte xt. In one sense, it is as old as humanity different cultures have always found ways of coexisting, and respect for diversity was a familiar feature of many historic empires, such as the Ottoman Empire.But the sort of multiculturalism that is said to have had a rise and fall is a more specific historic phenomenon, emerging first in the Western democracies in the late 1960s. This timing is important, for it helps us situate multiculturalism in relation to larger social transformations of the postwar era. More specifically, multiculturalism is part of a larger human-rights diversity involving ethnic and racial diversity.Prior to World War II, ethnocultural and religious diversity in the West was characterized by a range of illiberal and undemocratic relationships of hierarchy,6 justified by racialist ideologies that explicitly propounded the superiority of some peoples and cultures and their right to rule over others. These ideologies were widely accepted throughout the Western kno wledge domain and underpinned both domestic laws (e. g. , racially biased immigration and citizenship policies) and foreign policies (e. g. , in relation to overseas colonies). 5 6 Neil Bissoondath, Selling Illusions The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada(Toronto Penguin, 1994). Including relations of conqueror and conquered, colonizer and colonized, master and slave, settler and indigenous, racialized and unmarked, normalized and deviant, orthodox and heretic, civilized and primitive, and ally and enemy. Multiculturalism Success, Failure, and the Future 5 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE After World War II, however, the world recoiled against Hitlers fanatical and murderous use of such ideologies, and the United Nations decisively repudiated them in favor of a new ideology of the equality of races and peoples.And this new assumption of human equality generated a series of political movements designed to contest the lingering presence or enduring effects of older hierarchies. We can disti nguish three waves of such movements 1) the struggle for decolonization, concentrated in the period 194865 2) the struggle against racial segregation and discrimination, initiated and exemplified by the AfricanAmerican civil-rights movement from 1955 to 1965 and 3) the struggle for multiculturalism and minority rights, which emerged in the late 1960s.Multiculturalism is part of a larger human-rights revolution involving ethnic and racial diversity. Each of these movements draws upon the human-rights revolution, and its foundational ideology of the equality of races and peoples, to challenge the legacies of earlier ethnic and racial hierarchies. Indeed, the human-rights revolution plays a double role here, not just as the inspiration for a struggle, but also as a constraint on the tolerable goals and means of that struggle.Insofar as historically excluded or stigmatized groups struggle against earlier hierarchies in the name of equality, they too have to renounce their own tradition s of exclusion or oppression in the treatment of, say, women, gays, people of mixed race, religious dissenters, and so on. Human rights, and liberal-democratic constitutionalism more generally, provide the overarching framework within which these struggles are debated and addressed.Each of these movements, therefore, can be seen as contributing to a process of democratic citizenization that is, turning the earlier catalog of hierarchical relations into relationships of liberaldemocratic citizenship. This entails transforming both the vertical relationships between minorities and the state and the horizontal relationships among the members of different groups. In the past, it was often assumed that the only way to engage in this process of citizenization was to impose a single undifferentiated model of citizenship on all individuals.But the ideas and policies of multiculturalism that emerged from the 1960s start from the assumption that this complex history inevitably and appropriat ely generates group-differentiated ethnopolitical claims. The key to citizenization is not to suppress these differential claims but to filter them through and frame them within the language of human rights, civil liberties, and democratic accountability. And this is what multiculturalist movements have aimed to do.The precise character of the resulting multicultural reforms varies from group to group, as befits the distinctive history that each has faced. They all start from the antidiscrimination principle that underpinned the second wave but go beyond it to challenge other forms of exclusion or stigmatization. In most Western countries, explicit state-sponsored discrimination against ethnic, racial, or religious minorities had largely ceased by the 1960s and 1970s, under the influence of the second wave of humanrights struggles.Yet ethnic and racial hierarchies persist in many societies, whether measured in terms of economic inequalities, political underrepresentation, social sti gmatization, or cultural invisibility. Various forms of multiculturalism have been unquestionable to help overcome these lingering inequalities. The focus in this report is on multiculturalism as it pertains to (permanently settled) immigrant groups,7 7 There was briefly in some European countries a form of multiculturalism that was not aimed at the inclusion of permanent immigrants, but rather at ensuring that temporary migrants would return to their country of origin.For example, mothertongue education in Germany was not initially introduced as a minority right but in order to enable guest worker children to reintegrate in their countries of origin (Karen Schonwalder, Germany Integration Policy and Pluralism in a Self-Conscious Country of Immigration, in The Multiculturalism Backlash European Discourses, Policies and Practices, eds. Steven Vertovec and Susanne Wessendorf London Routledge, 2010, 160).Needless to say, this sort of returnist multiculturalism premised on the idea th at migrants are foreigners who should return to their real basis has nothing to do with multiculturalism policies (MCPs) premised on the idea that immigrants belong in their host countries, and which aim to make immigrants 6 Multiculturalism Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE but it is worth noting that struggles for multicultural citizenship have also emerged in relation to historic minorities and indigenous peoples. 8 C. The Evolution of Multiculturalism PoliciesThe case of immigrant multiculturalism is just one aspect of a larger ethnic revival across the Western democracies,9 in which different types of minorities have struggled for new forms of multicultural citizenship that combine both antidiscrimination measures and positive forms of recognition and accommodation. Multicultural citizenship for immigrant groups clearly does not involve the same types of claims as for indigenous peoples or national minorities immigrant groups do not typically seek l and rights, territorial autonomy, or appointed language status.What then is the substance of multicultural citizenship in relation to immigrant groups? The Multiculturalism Policy Index is one attempt to measure the evolution of MCPs in a alike(p) format that enables comparative research. 10 The index takes the following eight policies as the most common or emblematic forms of immigrant MCPs11 Constitutional, legislative, or parliamentary proof of multiculturalism, at the central and/ or regional and municipal levels The adoption of multiculturalism in school curricula The inclusion of ethnic representation/sensitivity in the mandate of public media or media licensing Exemptions from dress codes, either by statute or by court cases Allowing of dual citizenship The financing of ethnic group organizations to support cultural activities The funding of bilingual education or mother-tongue instruction Affirmative action for disadvantaged immigrant groups12 feel more at home wh ere they are.The focus of this paper is on the last mentioned type of multiculturalism, which is centrally concerned with constructing new relations of citizenship. 8 In relation to indigenous peoples, for example such as the Maori in New Zealand, primordial peoples in Canada and Australia, American Indians, the Sami in Scandinavia, and the Inuit of Greenland new models of multicultural citizenship have emerged since the late 1960s that include policies such as land rights, self-government rights, recognition of habitual laws, and guarantees of political consultation.And in relation to substate national groups such as the Basques and Catalans in Spain, Flemish and Walloons in Belgium, Scots and Welsh in Britain, Quebecois in Canada, Germans in South Tyrol, Swedish in Finland we see new models of multicultural citizenship that include policies such as federal or quasi-federal territorial autonomy official language status, either in the region or nationally and guarantees of re presentation in the central government or on constitutional courts. 9 Anthony Smith, The Ethnic revival in the Modern World (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1981).10 Keith Banting and I developed this index, first published in Keith Banting and Will Kymlicka, eds. , Multiculturalism and the Welfare State Recognition and Redistribution in Contemporary Democracies (Oxford Oxford University Press, 2006). Many of the ideas discussed in this paper are the result of our collaboration. 11 As with all cross-national indices, there is a trade-off between normalization and sensitivity to local nuances. There is no universally accepted definition of multiculturalism policies and no hard and fast line that would sharply distinguish MCPs from closely link policy fields, such as antidis

Ap American History Essay Example for Free

Ap American History Essay1. The opponents of the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War attacked slavery as the stand cause of expansion, but in fact it was no more important than other causes. Assess the validity of this statement, using the documents and your knowledge of U.S. history from 1820-1860 to support your answer.During the early-mid part of the 19th century (mainly 1820-1860) Americans objected some things they didnt like. Taxes, the government, even presidents were some of the rejections of the large number. But the one thing the people did not like during this time period was the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War. The opponents of the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War attacked slavery as the root cause for expansion. However, slavery was not the only reason America sought for expansion.Other than slavery, people wanted to explode America because they believed in Manifest Destiny (an cerebration during the 19th century in which people believed that America should expand over the entirety of North America) or because they feared that Texas was an independent state, even the Gold Rush in California (1848-1855) contributed to the expansion of America. Even though the opponents of the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War attacked slavery as the root cause of expansion the idea of Manifest Destiny, fear, and the Gold Rush were other important causes for expansion.As you may know, slavery was the key reason as to why people wanted to expand America, especially mhoerners. Abolitionists (people who were against slavery) did not like the idea that the expansion of America was based on slavery, but it was. In Document B it states, Texaswill strengthen the peculiar institution of the S break throughh, and open a new and vast field for slavery. Many southerners wanted Texas to be annexed to America because it would allow the south to have more slave states (states that allowed slavery). However, people feared that if Texas was annexe d, slavery would expand everywhere in America, and they did not want that. Document C also talks round slavery. It states that, The slave people of Americamust be increased. Texas is annexed it will benefit the South in moving some slaves out of the superabundant slave population and will ultimately improve the living conditions of slaves because they wouldnt be as crowded. You see, slavery was an important cause for expansion, but the idea of unmistakable destiny was plainly as important.The idea of manifest destiny came about the early part of the 19th century. People who believed in manifest destiny believed that America should be fitting to expand to the entirety of North America. In Document A, Thomas Hart Benson says, the American population has begun to extend itself to the Oregon TerritoryI say to them all, Go on People like Mr. Benson want America to expand because they want the world to show the world how prosperous America is. In Document D, John L. OSullivan said, A population will soon be in actual occupation of California. In this document, Sullivan was talking about the California Gold Rush (1848- 1855). Since some(prenominal) people on the eastern side of America have been hearing about the sightings of gold in California, many people decided to venture out to California to collect some of it.Thousands of people rushed to California that it was given the term gold rush. The gold rush allowed America to expand itself into California, which was back up by the manifest destiny believers. Document E also talks about the ideas of manifest destiny. It states, We ought to have the Bay of San Francisco Why? BecauseI thinkour people should move there The author of Document E obviously believed in the idea of manifest destiny because he wants to see people in San Francisco, which is in California. The manifest destiny idea helped encourage people to have more pride in their nation, which allowed them to expand from the East coast of America to the West.However, not every idea of expansionism was happy. Others people wanted to expand America because of fear. In Document F it states, None can fail to see the danger to our safety and future calmness if Texas remains an independent state, or becomes an ally or dependency of some foreign nation more powerful than herself. After Texas won its independence from Mexico in 1835, Texas could not cede the American Union because it needed to enter America with a free state (a state with no slavery) because of the molybdenum Compromise (the Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820 in which stated that there would be no slavery in the Louisiana Territory above the 36th parallel). Since there were no other states to enter with Texas, Texas had to remain as an independent state for about ten years (1835- 1845). During that time, people urged for a state to enter as a free state with Texas because, since Texas was not a part of America, it could do whatever it wanted. Things like joining a d ifferent nation or starting a war with America were options that were available for Texas. That is why many people wanted Texas to join as quickly as possible. Thankfully, Texas joined with Iowa in 1845.You see, slavery was not the only cause for expansion in America. The idea of Manifest Destiny and fear allowed the expansion of America, even the Gold Rush encouraged people to strike in California, allowing America to expand from the east coast to the west.

Differences between men and women

Differences between work force and womenFor a long time there has been considerable scientific interest in studying differences between men and women and the effect that these differences control within the relationship. The sexes atomic number 18 distinguishable because their brains are different. The brain, the chief administrative and emotional organ of life, is differently constructed in men and in women it processes information in a different way, which results in different perceptions, priorities, and behavior. Women have four times as many brain cells (neurons) connecting the secure and left side of their brain. This finding provides evidence that supports the observation that men rely easily and more heavily on their left brain to solve unmatched problem one step at a time. Women have more efficient access to both sides of their brain and therefore greater use of their unspoiled brain. Women set up focus on more than one problem at one time and frequently prefer to sol ve problems through multiple activities at a time. Nearly every parent has observed how young girls find the conversations of young boys boring. Young boys express confusion and would rather play sports than participate actively in a conversation between girls who are discussing as many as three subjects at onceRecognizing, guessing, discussing as well as performing skillfully in light of the differences between men and women bottom of the inning be difficult. Our failure to recognize and appreciate these differences bathroom become a lifelong bug of disappointment, frustration, tension and eventu everyy our downfall in a relationship. Relationships between men and women are not impossible or necessarily difficult. Problems simply arise when we attend or assume the opposite sex should think, feel or act the way we do. Its not that men and women live in completely different realities. Rather, our deficiency of knowledge and mutual experience gives rise to our difficulties. han ds and women blast problems with similar goals but with different considerations. While men and women can solve problems equally well, their approach and their process are often quite different. For most women, sacramental manduction and discussing a problem presents an opportunity to explore, deepen or force outen the relationship with the person they are talking with. Woman is usually more concerned about how problems are solved than merely puzzle out the problem itself. For women, solving a problem can profoundly impact whether they feel nigher and less alone or whether they feel distant and less connected. The process of solving a problem can strengthen or weaken a relationship. Most men are less concerned and do not feel the same as women when solving a problem. Men approach problems in a very different manner than women. For most men, solving a problem presents an opportunity to demonstrate their competence, their strength of resolve, and their commitment to a relationshi p. How the problem is solved is not nearly as important as solving it effectively and in the best possible manner. Men have a tendency to dominate and to assume authority in a problem solving process. They set aside their feelings provided the dominance hierarchy was concur upon in advance and respected. They are often distracted and do not attend well to the quality of the relationship while solving problems.While men and women can reach similar conclusions and make similar decisions, the process they use can be quite different and in some cases can exact to entirely different outcomes. In general, men and women consider and process information differently. Women tend to be intuitive global thinkers, they come to understand and consider problems all at once. Men tend to focus on one problem at a time or a limited number of problems at a time. They have an enhanced ability to separate themselves from problems and minimize the complexity that may exist. Men come to understand and c onsider problems one piece at a time.There is evidence to suggest that a great deal of the sensitivity that exists within men and women has a physiological basis. It has been observed that is many cases, women have an enhanced physical alarm response to danger or threat. Their autonomic and sympathetic systems have a lower threshold of arousal and greater reactivity than men. In both men and women, higher levels of testosterone directly affect the aggressive response and behavior centers of the brain. Increasing estrogen and progesterone in men has a feminizing effect. Sexually aggressive males become less focused on sexual aggressive behavior and content when they are given female hormones. On the an other(a)(prenominal) hand, changing estrogen and progesterone levels in women during menstrual cycles can produce a flood of memories as well as strong emotions. Increasing or high levels of testosterone can produce an emotional insensitivity, empathic block and increased indifferenc e to the distress others.At the heart of sensitivity is our capacity to form, appreciate and oppose relationships that are rewarding. Even here there are important differences. For men, what demonstrates a solid relationship is quite different from that of most women. Men feel closer and validated through shared activities. Such activities include sports, competition, outdoor activities or sexual activities that are decidedly active and physical. While both men and women can appreciate and engage in these activities they often have preferential differences. Women, on the other hand, feel closer and validated through communication, dialogue and intimate sharing of experience, emotional content and personal perspectives. Many men tend to find such sharing and involvement uncomfortable, if not, overwhelming.These differences found in men and women help me understand why relationships are complicated, and why is important to learn and accept these differences. I have a pretty good rela tionship with my boyfriend but sometimes I feel he does not care enough for the relationship, and that is because we do not how to communicate. That is something that I have been trying to change. I understand that we perceive things different but there are things that we can do to improve the relationship and we both know we can do better. Everything is part of understanding each other and be mature in the relationship. If I love somebody I will try to understand and identify our differences and make changes for the benefit of both.

Critical accounting theory

Critical explanation openingIntroductionThere atomic number 18 several reasons on that layover is no one universally authentic theory of history. The reasons are of two sorts. The first is philosophical. The second is practical. This essay discusses each of these. It then furnishs examples from accounting theory. Philosophical reasonsThe statement There is no universally withdrawed accounting theory is true by definition. Scientific judgement of the term theory denies that each theory usher out be universally accepted. harmonise to Popper (e.g., 2002a, 2002b), theories are conjectures that are confide to the test. If they are refuted by the test, they are either rejected or refined. If they are not refuted, they remain theories (not facts). They are then put to further tests, and are further refined. In order for this to proceed, on that point must exist rival theories. In this centering, theories compete in a process of Darwinian selection. The theories never get to the truth, but they get progressively closer.This is the first reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. If there were a universally accepted theory of accounting, it wouldnt be a theory. It would be something else. Notice that, conformationing to Popper, no theory ever arrives at certain knowledge. The outperform any theory drive out do is curtail ignorance. Moreover, if scientists were to discover a true theory, there would be no way they could know it was true, so there would still be competing theories.This last point needs elaboration. Gdels incompleteness theorems ( recognize, e.g., Hofstadter, 1979) demonstrate that, in any system of logic rich enough to contain formal arithmetic there exists an infinite number of statements that are true but that are impossible, in principle, for the system to know to be true. This means, in practical terms, that in any complex system-for example, an economic system-there exist solutions to problems that are known by the system, but are not known by any individual within it. This is apprehended by leading economists (e.g., Hayek, 1979). Further, given that there exist usually infinitely more wrong solutions to problems than classify solutions to problems, any test to solve much(prenominal) problems by diktat is infinitely more likely to lead to failure than to success. As regards economics, this led Hayek (1944) to his espousal of the free market. As regards theory in science, it means that any attempt to impose a single theory on anything is likely to lead to a seriously wrong theory. This is another reason for believing there chamberpot be no universally accepted theory of accounting. Any universally accepted theory could all be universally accepted if it were imposed by diktat, and, if it were imposed by diktat, it would of necessity most likely be wrong. Therefore it would give rise to a rival theory.Related to this, Feyerabend (1996) argues that there is no such thing as a single sci entific method, and that any attempt to impose one is counter-productive. Feyerabends doctrine of science is summarised as anything goes. This, shows another reason for there being no single theory of accounting. If there can be no universally accepted method, there can be no universally accepted theory.There are two popular views of science that are in conflict with Poppers perspective positivism and postmodernism. Positivism is the philosophy, associated with Ayer (1946) that says that the only meaningful statements are those that are true by logic and those that may be verified by observation. This is the verification principle. The first problem with the verification principle is that it is neither a truth of logic nor an empirically verifiable fact, therefore by its own terms it is meaningless. The second problem is that in implies science proceeds inductively. But inductive logic (drawing general conclusions from specific instances) is flawed a million observations of white swans, for example, does not demonstrate that all swans are white (indeed, they arent some swans are black).Postmodernism is the philosophy that reality is socially constructed. So what is real to one person may be unreal to another. At a trivial level, this is true, for assorted people see the same things in different ways. It is also true that, historically, science progressed in some instances by channelizes in world view, or paradigm (Kuhn, 1996). However, this is a misgiving more of the sociology of science, not of ontology. And taken literally postmodernism is absurd. It leads to the conclusion that there is no such thing as reality.The prevalence of competing philosophies of science-Popperism, positivism, and postmodernism-provides another reason for there being no universally accepted theory of accounting. There is no universally accepted view of what constitutes reality. indeed one should expect there to be different theories of accounting, each with its cadre of suppo rters.Practical reasonsThere are three purposes for any theory of accounting, and each makes different demands on the theory.The first is that accounting should provide the best information about a companys position. Such a theory is prescriptive, in that it suggests how best accountants should ply their trade. Such a viewpoint is said to be normative. A normative theory is one that states what is best practice.A theory of accounting may also seek to describe what accountants do. Any science must let in accurate descriptions. It is logically possible for a researcher to adhere to a descriptive theory yet bemoan the fact that accountants dont follow what the researcher considers the correct (i.e., normative) practice.There is another aspect to descriptive theories. Until the advent of cheap computers, there was no way that researchers could analyse vast collections of data. Moreover, very often the data were untouchable (Gaffikin), 2008). Computers have changed this. This is another reason for believing there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. A descriptive theory is only as uncorrupted as the data fed into it. But it is impossible to analyse all the data, only different blocks of data. Different blocks may give rise to different descriptions.In describing how accountants behave, researchers must gather evidence. But what evidence? And how should researchers gather it? Positivists tend to use quantitative data. These are data that are, supposedly objective, and may be demoed numerically and manipulated statistically. Company sales figures are an example. Postmodernists tend to use qualitative data. These are data that make no claim to objectivity and are difficult to express numerically. The findings of unstructured interviews-emotions, impressions, and so on-are examples of qualitative data. Because of this, even when presented with the same evidence, different researchers may reach different conclusions. This is another reason there is no uni versally accepted theory of accounting.A theory of accounting can seek to explain. Such theories are scientific in the Popperian sense, for they may be refuted. It is logically possible for a researcher to believe that Theory 1 is the best explanatory theory, Theory 2 is the best descriptive theory, and Theory 3 is the best normative theory. Thus again there are many theories of accounting. Any researcher may subscribe to three different theories, and do so without being inconsistent.In practice, the characteristic between normative, descriptive, and explanatory theories is blurred. Any theory of one type may have features of the others. Example theoriesThis section considers discusses two example theories. Theory 1 validating accounting theoryThere are several problems with normative theory. One concerns what to enter. Consider assets. An accountant does not know how much a companys assets are worth. So the accountant uses one of several indicators (historical cost, for instance) . The accountant must also estimate how much assets depreciate. Accountants use algorithms to calculate depreciation-typically, straight line depreciation such that assets set out worthless after three years. Such algorithms are only broadly accurate.Such considerations led Watts and Zimmerman (1978) to develop positive accountancy theory. The theory is in dissociate descriptive, in that it states what real-world accountants do, and in part explanatory, in that it purports to explain why accountants behave in the way they do. The theory says, in effect, that company accounts do not accord with reality. Instead, they accord with what powerful interests (stakeholders, shareholders, managers) want others to see as reality.The theory makes two assumptionsHomo economicus. This states three things. First, people are entirely rational. Second, people act only out of self-interest. Third, people act only to maximise their wealth.The efficient market hypothesis (EMH). This states that, lef t to its own devices (i.e., if unregulated), the market delivers an optimum price for any safe or service. The EMH states that prices accord with all available information.The reason positive accounting theory makes these assumptions is that, without them, it is difficult to make quantifiable telephoneions, but with them it is relatively easy. Thus, for example, with them one can predict companies in one particular environment will prefer a different form of accounting from companies in another type of environment. Thus, for example, Watts and Zimmerman (1978) predict that firms whose earnings are increased by general price level adjusted accounting (GPLA) will oppose GPLA, but firms whose earnings are decreased by GPLA will favour it.But the notion of H. economicus is problematic-some people are unintelligent, some are altruistic, and so on (Lunn, cited in Clark, 2008), The EMH is also contentious. Some economists accept it, others dont. The EMH is also vague. If the market is e fficient, the EMH doesnt say how long it takes to reach a decision Also, if the EMH were true, arbitrage would be impossible. The best one can say about the assumptions is that they provide an approximation of reality. How good an approximation it is, nobody knows. This is another reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. Some people think the assumptions provide a good approximation some people think they provide a bad one. Fama and French (2004) state that markets can be inefficient and investors can be ill-informed and irrational,Just as owners, governments, and workers have vested interests, so have Watts and Zimmerman. In their case, they are interested in promoting positive accounting theory. So, in this regard, the theory has a normative aspect. It concerns how accountancy researchers should practice their trade. If all researchers follow Watts and Zimmermans diktats, Watts and Zimmerman will become rich. Naturally, all accountancy researchers want to be i n Watts and Zimmermans position, but the only way for them to do so is to develop a rival theory. This is another reason there is no universally accepted accountancy theory.Theory 2. Critical accounting theoryCritical accounting theory isnt really a theory. Its more a style of criticism. It aims, not only to alter accounting practice, but to change society (Gaffikin, 2008). It is political. Thus, for example, Laughlin (cited in Davis, 2008) statesA critical understanding of the role of accounting processes and practices and the accounting profession in the functioning of society and organisations with an intention to use that understanding to engage (where appropriate) in changing these processes, practices and the profession.In this, critical accounting theory is postmodernist.Postmodernists point to the numerous flaws in positive accountancy theory. They highlight the weaknesses in the concepts of H. economicus and the EMH. They point out that Watts and Zimmerman use cajoleryal d evices to put the views across. They argue that the methodology and measuring instruments of positivist theories are crude, and so on. Occasionally, they make (or repeat) good points (e.g., the EMH is incorrect) (e.g., Mouck, 1992).As indicated, postmodernists deny the universe of discourse of objective reality. In doing so, they deny the possibility of determining the truth, or worth, of any statement. Thus they deny the truth, or worth, of postmodernism.This is the problem with postmodernism. If reality is socially constructed, then there cannot be a universally accepted theory, for socially constructed reality differs according to who is doing the constructing. A true theory to one postmodernist is a false theory to all others. That is why there is no universally accepted theory of accounting.ReferencesAyer, A.J. (1946). Language, truth and logic. (2nd ed.). London Gollancz.Clark, T. (2008, November 1). Market madness. The Guardian.Davis, D. (2008). Critical accounting theory. L ecture 9. Lecture notes. Bangor personal credit line School.Feyerabend, P. (1996). Against method Outline of an anarchistic theory of knowledge. San Francisco, CA Analytical Psychology Club of San Francisco,Fama, E.F. and French, A.R. (2004). The CAPM Theory and Evidence. On line http//www.econ.sdu.edu.cn/jrtzx/uploadfile/pdf/Assetpricing/04.pdfGaffikin, M. (2008). Accounting theory Research, regulation and accounting practice. French Forest, Australia Pearson Education.Hayek, F. A. (1979). Unemployment and monetary policy. San Francisco Cato Institute.Hayek, F. A. (1944). The road to serfdom. London George RoutledgeHofstadter, D. (1979). G?del, Esther, Bach An eternal golden braid. Harmondsworth Penguin.Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago University of Chicago Press.Mouck, T. (1992). The rhetoric of science and the rhetoric of revolt in the story of positive accounting theory. Accounting Auditing, and Accountability, 5 (4) 35-56.Popper, K. (2002a). Un ended quest. An intellectual biography. London Routledge.Popper, K. (2002b). Conjectures and refutations. London Routledge.Watts, R.L. And Zimmerman, J.L. (1978). Towards a positive theory of the decision of accounting standards. Accounting Review, 53 112-132.

Construct A Script By Using Scapy Computer Science Essay

Construct A Script By Using Scapy computer Science Essay tuner intercommunicate for the most part clear be defined as a net hold up which is type determine up by development radio signal frequency to communicate among computers and other profits devices. Wireless webs known as WiFi network or WLAN.As a network grows and expands radio commemorate networks atomic number 18 extremely popular and painless to setup feature and no cabling involved. in that respect be two main components to glide path the radio network which be radio set router or access berth and wireless guests. Wireless network norm altogethery consumption in 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n amounts protocol.Wireless network needs t altogetherly trade protection to carry all kinds of confidential selective information which means at least enabling Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) on the access forefront. Without proper implementation of security measures, any wireless network adapter coming within the range can access the internet without permission. So, it will results in congestion and slightly of the authorized client cannot access the internet. So, this investigate will do wireless network auditing by sniffleing some of the information within the access point and detect contingent infringements in ability of Computer and Mathematical Sciences.1.1 BackgroundWireless network is a network which is setup by using radio signal frequency to communicate among multiple post at one time. In addition, wireless network referred as WiFi network or WLAN. Although we have a bun in the oven enable WEP encryption on the access point, there ar still some weaknesses which can be good chairer by the users with the right equipment to crack. The assailant can sniff easily with several tools to crack the password to break in as unauthorized person. In order to verify the correct access point settings and detect intrusions in terms of security in wireless network, we earn t he complete script to audit wireless networks.1.2 Problem StatementNowadays wireless network become a rationalize in communication. Each wireless system or access point was setup with certain policies. It is hard to verify whether each wireless access point setup correctly or not. Plus, nowadays we need to use many tools to verify the wireless access point status. Furthermore, most of network admin does not check back each wireless access point after its configuration. Moreoer, we need some tools to identify the intrusions that come where they be try to access the Internet. Besides that, some of assaulters send spoofing frame to try access the wireless network. So, we cannot identify the attackers MAC address.1.3 Research ObjectivesThe main objective of this start isTo construct a script by using ScapyTo sniff and to mention possible intrusion on wireless network related with wireless security.1.4 Scope of the ResearchThis project focuses in Faculty of Computer and Mathematica l Sciences that has multiple access points which will enables to sniff all the information on wireless networks. We focuses on Data Link layer 2 to sniff the broadcast frame and identify possible intrusion.The main platform to go by the tools-Ubuntu10.10We are use two main tools to construct the script which are-Python2.6Scapy1.5 Significance of the ResearchThis project is meaning(a) to gain knowledge to construct the complete script by using Python2.6 and Scapy script. We can learn the easiest way by using this script with the shorter line compared to other script. This project also servings to learn 802.11 frame structure including beacon frame that has transmitted by the access point.1.6 governance of ThesisThis project divided into 5 main chapters Chapter 1 In this chapter, we handleed on the introduction generally of this topic. It includes problem statement, objectives, scope and significance of the research.Chapter 2 This chapter reviewed writings that relate to the top ic with previous researches. We include the similar of related studies to our research.Chapter 3 In third chapter, we identify materials and methods that are described in methodological analysis phases in order to get the desired information for the accomplishment of this research.Chapter 4 In quaternaryth chapter, we discusses on the findings of the research.Chapter 5 lastly, the last chapter is focuses on the recommendations and suggestions where it will summarize the certainty of the research.1.7 resultantThis introduction of this chapter had clearly explained the problem statement, objectives, scope, and significances of the research. This chapter gives a clear view of the overall content of the research.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.0 IntroductionThis chapter ensures the previous work done by prior tec in the ambit of auditing wireless network, security of wireless network and any other related works. Section 2.1 discuss on main platform to tack together the tools. Section 2.2 discuss on the tools to be use to construct and campaigning the script. Section 2.3 discuss on standard protocol fro wireless Lan(WLAN), IEE 802.11. Then, sections 2.4 discuss on frame for 802.11, 2.5 Wireless LAN components, 2.6 Wireless Network Sniffing, 2.7 reviews for the related works and lastly 2.8 Summarizations of Literature Reviews.2.1 Platform2.1.1 Ubuntu10.10Ubuntu is a free operating system, developed by small team developers who are established Linux Debian projects. This free operating system was developed to facilitate the use of screen background linux, Ubuntu. It developed base on the Debian GNU/Linux distribution and distributed as free and open source software.Most Ubuntu packages are based on package from Debian. two distributions are using Debians deb package format and package counseling tools, Apt and Synaptic. However, sometimes .deb packages need to be rebuild from source to be use in Ubuntu.Ubuntu have variant edition much(prenominal) as GNOME des ktop, KDE edition, Kubuntu and server edition. In this project, we use Ubuntu 10.10 as our platform to run all the tools in it.2.2 Tools2.2.1 PythonPython is the one of the syllabus language that can interpret in developing the applications such as web applications and integrate the system more effectively. Python can run on Windows, Linux/Unix, Mac OS X. All the Python broadcasts can be packaged into stand-alone executable code for many using various tools.In this project, we use the latest pas seul, Python2.6 tool to construct and run the complete script after install all the Python package in Ubuntu10.10. We use Python as a programming language because it is most powerful language and shorter to write the code than other languages. Compared to other programming languages, Python are readable syntax, intuitive object orientation, very heights level dynamic info personas, full modularity, supporting hierarchical packages and many more.2.2.2 ScapyAccording to Philippe Biondi ( 2009), Scapy is a powerful interactive packet manipulation program from Python program that be able to forge or decode packets of a wide number of protocols, send them on the wire, capture them, match requests and replies, and much more. It can easily handle most classical tasks like scanning, tracerouting, probing, unit tests, attacks or network discovery.For this project, we foc utilize on 802.11 standard protocols. Scapy enable to sniff wireless network and refund the packet and can send it to the wireless network.2.3 Wireless Protocol2.3.1 IEEE 802.11IEEE 802.11 is a standard protocol for wireless LAN (WLAN), which is uses RF technology to transmit and gather in data over the air. Based on this standard protocol, it communicates between wireless client and a base stations or access point. There are several types of standard protocols which are 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n. Here are briefly about types of standard protocols2.3.1.1 IEEE 802.11bIEEE 802.11b standard su pports maximum bandwidth 11Mbps in 2.4 Ghz. The proceeds of this protocol is lowest. Disadvantage using this protocol is lowest maximum speed because it may interfere if no determined the frequency band.2.3.1.2 IEEE 802.11a802.11a supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps in 5 GHz. The advantage of this protocol is fast maximum speed. Disadvantage using this protocol is the cost is higher than IEE 802.11b2.3.1.3 IEE 802.11gIEE 802.11g standard supports maximum bandwidth 54Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band in maximum range. The advantage is signal range is better with fastest maximum speed. Disadvantage using this protocol is higher cost than IEEE 802.11b.2.3.1.4 IEEE 802.11nIEEE 802.11n is developed on previous IEEE 802.11 standards by adding MIMO. IEEE 802.11n despatchers high throughput wireless transmission at 100Mbps 200 Mbps. It is better performance compared with IEE 802.11g.2.4 802.11 Frame2.4.1 Frame headerEachframecontainsastandardheaderasshowninFigure2.1Figure 2.1 Frame Headerfrom http// technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc757419(WS.10).aspxTheframe headercontainsalltheinformationneededtogettheframe towhereitisgoingand throw in the towelthereceivertounderstandwhat messagetheframeiscarrying.Frame Control FC contains control information used for defining the type of 802.11 MAC frame and providing information necessary. FC sector as shown in Figure 2.2Figure 2.2 Frame Control Fieldfrom http//technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc757419(WS.10).aspxThe details of frame control field as followsProtocol adaptation Protocol Version provides the current version of the 802.11 protocol used.Type and Subtypes It is determines the function of the frame. There are three main different of type fields which are control, data and management and breaks into multiple subtypes.Three values of type field00 Management01 Control10 Data11 Reserved/UnusedBreaks into subtype field00/0000 Management/Association Request00/1000 Management/Authentication00/1100 Management/Deauthent ication01/1011 Control/Request To Send (RTS)10/0000 Data/DataTo DS and from DS Specifytheaddressingtypeofthe frame, either the frame is going to or exiting from the DS.More Fragments Shows more fragments of the frame, either data or management type.Retry Retransmitted either data or management frame types.Power Management shows whether the sending station is in active mode or power-save mode.More Data shows to a station in power-save mode that the AP has more frames to send. It is also used for APs to show that additional broadcast/multicast frames are to follow.WEP shows whether or not encryption and authentication are used in the frame.Order Shows that all received data frames must be processed in order.Duration/ID Shows the remaining duration needed to receive the future(a) frame transmission.Sequence Control (SEQ) SEQ usedforfragmentationand packetreassembly.Frame body The frame body contains the data or information include in either management type or data type frames.F rame Check Sequence (FCS) The transmitting STA uses a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) over all the fields of the MAC header and the frame body field to generate the FCS value.2.4.2 Beacon FrameBeacon frames are identified by the type field being set to 0 (Management Frame) and subtype of 8. Beacon frame are used by access point to advertise its presence and relay information, such as timestamp, SSID, and other parameters based on access point to radio NICs that are within range. Radio NICs continually scan all 802.11 radio convey and listen to beacons as the basis for choosing which access point is best to associate with.According to Robin Wood (2007), peoplemostly believe that turningoffbeaconswillhidetheirnetworkfromattacksastheir SSID will no longer be broadcast. Unfortunately, SSID is transmitted in clear text in all management frames and when the network is hidden while there is no data being transmitted, attacker can collect a management frame they can find in network SSID.2.5 Wireless LAN component2.5.1 Access pointWireless access point (WAP) is a basically hardware equipment that gets wireless devices to colligate to a wired network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related standards. In a wireless network, an access point sends and receives signals to any number of other, local wireless devices. These are normally adapters and routers. The WAP is commonly use in offices, homes and educational institutions. WAP devices use in IEEE 802.11 standards.2.6 Wireless Network SniffingWireless Sniffer is captures the data on wireless network without being detected. Wireless network sniffing works in 802.11, Ethernet as the physical and data link layers which is able of surveying raw packets (RFMON support), which include any prism2 based card (Linksys, D-Link, Rangelan, etc), Cisco Aironet cards, and Orinoco based cards.Moreover, sniffing can also service of process find the easy kill as in scanning for open access points that allow anyone to connect, or capturing the passwords used in a connection session that does not even use WEP, or in telnet, rlogin and ftp connections. Sniffing wireless network usually used by the attackers to capture the data and get the suspend information from the beacon frame. There are several techniques used to sniff the wireless network. almost of them are as follows-Passive ScanningPassive scanning is the first steps used to sniff the wireless networks. It is turn to mode RF into manage mode that allows every frame appearing on a channel to be copied as the radio of the station tunes to various channels. A station in supervise mode can capture packets without associating with an AP or ad-hoc network. When the transmission of the data in the form of radio waves starts the attackers can scan the whole data passively and carry on the sniffing process.The so-called promiscuous mode allows the capture of all wireless packets of an associated network. In this mode, packets cannot be read until authentication and a ssociation are completed. With the help of this data sniffer can easily decodes the secret information of the wireless networks.SSID DetectionAfter scan the data transmitted, it can detect the list of service set identifier (SSID) in the particular wireless network. The SSID shown in the Beacon frames is set to null in the hope of making the WLAN invisible unless a client already knows the correct SSID.When the Beacon displays a null SSID, there are two possibilities. Eventually, an Associate Request may appear from a legitimate station that already has a correct SSID. To such a request, there will be an Associate Response frame from the AP. Both frames will contain the SSID in the clear, and the attacker sniffs these.If the station wishes to join any available AP, it sends Probe Requests on all channels, and listens for Probe Responses that contain the SSIDs of the APs. The station considers all Probe Responses, just as it would have with the non-empty SSID Beacon frames, to selec t an AP. Normal association then begins. The attacker usually waits to sniff these Probe Responses and extract the SSIDs. Otherwise, if the beacon transmission is disabled, the attacker has two choices. The attacker can keep sniffing waiting for a voluntary Associate Request to appear from a legal station that already has a correct SSID and sniff that SSID.Collection of MAC addressesAfter detecting the SSID, sniffer now take steps to sniff the wireless network by collecting the required MAC addresses with the help of passive scanning and also with the help of different types of software. The collected of MAC address used for constructing spoofed frame by using specific tool. In wireless sniffing, there are some reasons why attacker collects all the MAC address. Some of the reasons are the attacker used sniffing to hide his or her identity and their access points. The other reason, access points used in collecting the MAC would not be registered.2.7 Review of Previous Related Works2. 7.1 Author David MaynorTitle of report Beginners Guide to Wireless Auditing (2006)This paper is a theatre of how to find the vulnerabilities in wireless devices drivers with specific techniques. The researcher discuss on how to build auditing environment, how to construct tools and in conclusion how to interpret the results. On this paper, although this was done on Dell Latitude D610, the internal wireless card of the machine was not used. The researcher was used wireless card, Netgear WPN511 to set up auditing environment that is supported with madwifi drivers. The combination with LORCON (Loss Of Radio CONnectivity) ability to craft the packet from scratch. Moreover, after setting up the good environment with patch madwifi and LORCON, the researcher construct the script with Scapy to generate a simple frame and inject it. The researcher use Wireshark to see the packets injected.2.7.2 Author Shreeraj ShahTitle of Paper Secure Your Wireless Networks with Scapy Packet Manipulation (2007)According to Shreej Shah, Scapy is scriptable and easy to use compared with Kismet and Airodump-ng. This paper focused on intrusion detection by using proven techniques. There are two techniques can be employed which are passive sniffing and active packet injection. The researcher discussed only passive sniffing methodology. In this project, there are several steps are used in passive sniffing methodology as follows-Set up a station for radio frequency (RF) manage modeSniff packets and discover network access pointsDiscover hidden access points and SSID (service set identifier)Harvest MAC and IP addressesPerform ongoing intrusion detection with sniffing.2.7.3 Author Robin Wood, Robin and freedomsoftware.co.ukTitle Programming Wireless Security (2007)This paper discussed some programming techniques to build wireless security tools. The researchers construct the script by using Python and Ruby script. There are several techniques that are used by using both scripts including d eauthentication attack, sniffing wireless traffic and automating a Four-Way- Handshake capture. All the techniques will be brought together to create an applications to automate capturing an EAPOL handshake which can used to crack the Pre-Shared Key. This paper required several tools including Lorcon, Pylorcon, red lorcon and Scruby. Moreover, it also discussed about several issues on Scruby which means Ruby scripts will not work properly as exactly required.2.8 Summarizations of some Literature ReviewsNoAuthorYearProject TitleProject Similarities and Differences1.Peter Seebach2005Getting practical about wireless security, Part 1 Building a wireless sniffer with PerlIn this paper, lightweight wireless sniffer was build that runs on open source software. This paper show to use open source software by get information about on wireless network and identified the common security problem.2.TJ OConnor2010Detecting and Responding to Data Link LayerAttacksIn this paper, Scapy is used to e xamine network traffic for data link layer attacks with identifying signatures and anomalies on both wired and wireless networks.3.Petter Clutterbuck, Terry Rowlands, Owen Seamons2007Auditing the Data Confidentiality of Wireless Local commonwealth NetworksThis paper describes how the software auditing artefact uses on sampled data packets to product a very detailed evaluation of the level of data confidentiality in effect crossways the WLAN.4.Mingzhe Li, Mark Claypool, and Robert Kinicki2005How to Build and Use an IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network SnifferIn this paper, wireless sniffer is built on computers with Linux operating systems and prism GT-based wireless interface cards. The operating systems tested are SUSE (Novell) Linux release 9.0/9.1/9.2/10.0 and Linux Fedora Core 3 where the kernel version can be either 2.4.x or 2.6.x. The wireless network interface cards, Netgear WG 511 version 1 PCMCIA card and Allnet ALL0271 54Mbit Wireless PCI adapter are usedTable 2.1 Summarization of related Literature Review2.9 ConclusionAll the information self-collected from this literature review is very useful in order to identify potential information that can make this research more relevant. By judgment the scenario of past implementation, it will give a better view on how to achieve these research objectives and also inspire new ideas to be implemented or added into this research.CHAPTER 3METHODOLOGY3.0 IntroductionThis chapter presents about the methodology being used as a guideline to ensure the project will operate successfully. methodological analysis consists of hardware, software and method that being used in this research. We need to choose proper hardware and software to meet the research exigency. Methodology is very important part to audit the wireless network with sequence of phases. We need to follow all this phases in order to accomplish the final project with achieving the objective. We divide the methodology of our project to several phases, where e very phase will include the important activities and its significant to be done.3.1 Methodology PhaseIn this project, there are four phases of method that followed properly. First phase is planning, second phase is development, third phase is testing, fourth phase is result and evaluation and the last phase is documentation. All the course of the methodology phase will be implementing systematically and efficiently as its role is vital to ensure the process of finishing this project in time. These phases are illustrated in methodology overview in Figure 3.1(i) and Figure 3.1(ii).PLANNINGDEVELOPMENTTESTINGRESULT AND EVALUATIONDOCUMENTATIONFigure 3.1 Project Phase (i) keepDevelopmentTestingResult and EvaluationPlanningProblem AssessmentPreliminary study of Literature entrap OSInstall Python packageInstall Scapy packageConstruct scriptRun Scapy scriptSniff a list of access point.Sniff Intrusion DetectionWriting a reportProject ScopeProject ObjectiveProject PlanningDetermine hardware a nd software usedScapy script completedResult findingFinal report completed.Figure 3.1 Project Phase (ii)3.2 Research Methodology3.2.1 PlanningFor planning phase, the activity is to define the objective of project by identifying problem opinion and by preliminary study of literature review. The deliverable of this phase can identify research objective and scope and also project planning. It consists of3.2.1.1 Preliminary study of literature reviewThe purpose is to understanding the similar or related project to be done. We need to review and get the idea on how it can be implemented and find the objective, scope and others benefit can get for the project requirement. This preliminary study can review by journals, online resource (internet), articles or book.USERACCESS POINTUSERSNIFF3.2.2 DevelopmentDiagram 3.1 Structure of research project3.2.2 a Install operating systemWe install Ubuntu 10.10 with interactive lifelike User Interface (GUI) on the laptop. It is easier to update the latest package. All the latest package including Python will updated on Ubuntu10.10emailprotected sudo apt-get update3.2.2 b Install toolsWe install Scapy in Python program where the Scapy is interactive manipulation program that can construct with the shorter script compared to the other script. We install Python program as a main programming language and resides the finished package in it.a. Install Python 2.6 packageemailprotected sudo apt-get install pythonemailprotected cd /tmpemailprotected /tmp fetch http//www.secdev.org/projects/scapy/files/scapy-latest.tar.gzemailprotected /tmp tar xvzf scapy-latest.tar.gzemailprotected /tmp cd scapy-2.1.0emailprotected /tmp/scapy-2.1.0 python setup.py install b. Install python-scapy packageemailprotected sudo apt-get install python-libpcap c. Install libpcap and libdnet and their Python wrappers.emailprotected sudo apt-get install python-libdnetd. Install additional software for special features.emailprotected sudo apt-get install tcpdum p graphviz imagemagick python-gnuplot python-crypto python-pyx3.2.2 c Construct the scriptWe construct the script with Python program for sniffing and detect possible vulnerabilities. The script will run on Ubuntu 10.10 in root terminal.3.2.3 TestingTesting phase, the action is to test by sniffing wireless network in an area by running the completed script. Before we run the script, we need to setting up the station for radio frequency (FR) in monitor mode. We illustrates the steps in Figure 3.2Construct the scriptSetting up the station for Radio Frequency (RF) to monitor modeScript runEnter the commandGet the data from acces point including- parent of access pointSSIDchannelRadio TypeSecurity TypeSignalCollect the dataIntrusion Detection including-Discovering Rogue Access billDiscovering Dummy Access PointFigures 3.2 Steps for testing3.2.4 Result and EvaluationIn this phase, we come out with the result by running the script. We collect all the information about SSID, MAC address, channel, radio type, security type, signal from broadcast frame that send by multiple access point. Next, we can detect possible intrusion by running other script using a same scripting language.3.2.5 DocumentationIn this final phase, all the results and findings will be included in one report. From the documentation, the researcher can determine whether the project achieve the objectives or not.3.3 Hardware and Software RequiredTo execute this project successfully, some requirement need to be accomplish. Some of the requirement will be involving hardware and software. Hardwares that will be required are3.3.1 HardwareThis project will used laptop.Processor at least 1 Gigahertz of CPU speed.3GB of RAM250 Gigabyte of hard disk spaceIntel WiFi Link 5100 wireless network interface cardMotherboard that support the processorMonitorNetwork cable3.3.2 SoftwareThis project will be running on LINUX platformUbuntu 10.103.3.3 ToolsPython2.6Scapy3.4 ConclusionAs a conclusion, this chapter is ver y important to gather all related and relevant information required. All the information will be used in order to achieve the objectives of this research.CHAPTER 4RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS4.0 IntroductionThis chapter discusses on the results gathered from this research, which is obtained by implementing the methods in Chapter 3. The result based on running completed script on Ubuntu10.10. It will display all the available information of access point actively in an area after sniffing it. Moreover we can detect all the possible intrusion with display the list of rogue access point and dummy access point.4.1 Sniff the wireless networkFirst of all we set up Radio Frequency (RF) into monitor mode which is in wlan0 interface. Next, we run the completed script that is already saved in root on Ubuntu 10.10 with the material body of file, sniffap.py. Then, we open the root terminal by enter ./sniffap.py wlan0. The result has shown in Figure 4.1Figure 4.1 Sniff Wireless Networkssniffap.py na me of saved filewlan0 monitor mode interfaceCHAPTER 5CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS5.0 IntroductionThis final chapter discuss about the conclusion of this research. It also discusses the suggestions and recommendations that will help those who want to upgrade or refers to this project in the future.5.1 ConclusionAs you can see, having an effective wireless access policy is critical to the security of any organization that operates a wireless networks. Without appropriate policy, the attacker easily gain access the wireless networks.5.2 RecommendationThis project is hopefully can only use the fully script to get the data from the access point without purchase the tools. Moreover, the admin take the action to get access point more securely and get a better signal for client to access the Internet.

Technology and Strategy :: essays research papers

TechnologyWidgets.com will implement a standard IT infrastructure to support individual office locations in New Jersey, California, Texas and Colorado, and new US-based locations we blueprint to open up over the next 3-5 years such as Massachusetts, New York, Virgina/DC . This IT infrastructure includes both our computing and communications systems. We will picture to contract with a single vendor source for each system component where possible that can support all our offices on a across the nation basis. We will also continue to use the web as our network backbone in lieu of other private network protocols, i.e T1. In roughly cases we will build our own intellectual property to support the IT infrastructure where we believe this creates a competitive differentiator and asset for Widgets.com. An example here is our visionary database and CRM/PRM applications.Our IT infrastructure objectives are to increase our company asset base, operating efficiency and reduce overall operati ng costs. The system components and the vendors providing these components must be financially secure, yield reliable 24x7 support and be accessible from any location within the US. The system components of our IT infrastructure are described below. Hardware Platform StandardsVendor stanceCategoryMobile DesktopsDell ComputerGreen productivity ToolsLan?Yellow quislingism ToolsPrinters/Scanners/CopiersHPGreenProductivity ToolsUPS Backup?YellowProductivity ToolsOffice Phone sets?YellowCollaboration/Sales and Marketing ToolsStorage Devices?YellowProductivity ToolsWirelss PDAs?YellowCollaboration/Sales and Marketing ToolsSofware Plaform StandardsVendor military positionCategoryOperating EnviromentWindows 2000/NT/Java/HTMLGreenPortalIntranetsGreenCollaboration ToolsWord/Spreadsheet/PresentationMicrosoft OfficeGreenProductivity ToolsEmail/ scheduleMicrosoft OutlookGreenCollaboration ToolsAccountingNetLedger/QuickenYellowAdminstration ToolsExpense ManagementNetLedger ExpenseYellowAdminstra tion ToolsProject/Deliverable Management?RedCollaboration ToolsContent Manager?RedCollaborations ToolsBusiness Process Manager (Practice Mgt.)?RedCollaboration ToolsCRM - Client DBOracle/Cambridge RedSales and Marketing ToolsPRM - adviser DBOracle/Cambridge RedSales and Marketing ToolsHRM - Employee/Payroll DBAdminstaffYellowAdminstration ToolsGreen return ProvidersVendor(s)StatusCategoryLocal Phone Service?

Free Essay: Symbols and Symbolism in White Fang :: White Fang Essays

Symbolism in White Fang   Classic - a word misunderstood by many an(prenominal) people around the world, mostly those of a younger generation. It is surprising how many people believe that the word classic means old or dull. This is just not the case. In actual fact, the label classic given to obligates means of the highest quality, or of enduring interest and value. Books with this label are the best on that point is. Every word is carefully thought out and made interesting for the reader. Symbolism, meaning and detail are all applied effectively to keep the book an on-going page-turner. Such a fine example of this is Jack Londons White Fang. A very wonderful tool to an author is the use of symbols inwardly a story. One of the more common symbols throughout short stories and novels ultimately refers to the bible and religious history. In most, if not all stories have the relationship in the midst of good and evil heaven and hell. Whether implied or not by Jack London , White Fang is full of many interesting biblical symbols. The character Beauty Smith, for object lesson very simply put symbolizes Satan. This man, this creature so vile as to subdue yet an separate victim (White Fang) into his ever-growing underground slavery prison camps. The avariciousness for money and profit is the only need for this prison camp the dog-fighting gambling is their prison cell. A comparison between the bulldog Cherokee and death itself can be made. Once death has you, there is no way of escaping. When Cherokee had White Fang gripped between his jaws, There was no escaping that grip. It was like Fate itself, and was inexorable, (London 139). Surely enough, God (Weedon Scott) came along and save White Fang from the grips of evil. The cold-heartedness of evil can be overcome with the heat and light of good. The care and kindness of such like Weedon Scott for all existing creatures alike. Many other symbols deep within this novel lay rest assured, but it is hard to catch them all in such a detailed book as this. With a closer inspection and a deep analysis of a novel, many small but nonetheless important meaningful things can be revealed. London has managed to intricately design a perfect novel full of deep meaning and symbols that can only be done in a short story. But a novel, with so many pages and pages of detailed work, it is so hard to keep up with all the things that lay undiscovered within.